It is recorded that in the year 1378 the Emir Soudoun Sheikouni tried to end the abuse of Indian hemp consumption among the poorer classes by having all plants of this description in Joneima destroyed and imprisoning all the hemp-eaters. He ordered, moreover, that all those who were convicted of eating the plant should have their teeth pulled out, and many were subjected to this punishment. But by 1393 the use of this substance in the Arabian territory had increased.

Four hundred years later the attention of the authorities in Egypt was drawn to the craving for hashish, and on 8th October, 1800, a French general issued the following regulations:

Art. 1. Throughout Egypt the use of a beverage prepared by certain Moslems from hemp (hashish), as well as the smoking of the seeds of hemp, is prohibited. Habitual smokers and drinkers of this plant lose their reason and suffer from violent delirium in which they are liable to commit excesses of all kinds.

Art. 2. The preparation of hashish as a beverage is prohibited throughout Egypt. The doors of those cafés and restaurants where it is supplied are to be walled up, and their proprietors imprisoned for three months.

Art. 3. All bales of hashish arriving at the customs shall be confiscated and publicly burnt.

These regulations manifest the spirit of Napoleon, who had left Egypt shortly before this. The measures taken against this substance were the result of direct observation of its action. They were just as successful as were the recent prohibitions of the cultivation of the plant in Egypt. The drug is supplied by smugglers who procure it from Greece. The passion for this substance defies all obstacles, and extends throughout the immense territories of Asia Minor, Asia, and Africa, where it is indulged in by several hundred million people.

The plant in question is cannabis indica, Indian hemp, which is not outwardly distinguishable from cannabis sativa. In India several preparations are made from it for consumption. In the narghile or water-pipe ganja, i.e. the blossoming tops of the non-fecundated female plant, is mostly smoked, as well as charras, the resin from this part of the plant. This is obtained by rubbing the tops between the hands, working them with the feet, or rubbing them with a rough cloth. Often a man walks through the field where the plant is cultivated and the resin is then scraped off the leather apron he wears. For preparing the beverage bhang the coarsely powdered leaves of female resinous plants are generally used.¹ In other parts of the world the leaves are simply mixed with seeds and filled into the pipe, or the combustion product of the lighted mixture is inhaled by other primitive and unclean methods.

Although the preparations of Indian hemp to be found in commerce are generally of a rather uncertain action, Indian hemp is a very powerful narcotic when employed in its countries of origin. Its use probably dates from about 2,000 years back. Innumerable generations have shared in its consumption, and will probably continue to do so as long as the plant can be obtained growing wild or in cultivation. It has been recently stated² that the Assyrians knew of hemp in the seventh or eighth century before Christ and used it as incense. They called it "Qunubu" or "Qunnabu," a term apparently borrowed from an old East-Iranian word "Konaba," the same as the Scythian name Kánnabis (cannabis), which later designation the plant bears at the present day, and as the word "Kanabas" which is derived from the primitive Germanic word "Hanapaz." These words are evidently identical with the Greek term konabos, i.e. noise, and would seem to originate from the noisy fashion in which the hemp smokers expressed their feelings.³ This furnishes us with the means of interpreting some statements of the ancient Herodotus (486-406 B.C.) He mentions that the Scythians of the Caspian and Aral Seas cultivated a plant whose seeds on combustion produced an intoxicating vapour. The other assumption, that the plant in question is one of the belladonna group, is hardly probable. Diodourus, who lived under Julius and Augustus, also mentions the plant. According to him the women of Thebes prepared a beverage from it which had an effect similar to that of Nepenthes. In the second century Galen expressly points to hemp as a substance in general consumption. He states that at dessert small cakes were passed round which increased thirst, but if taken in excess produced torpor. Toward the year 600 its use extended from India to Mongolia. Ancient Sanscrit writers speak of "Pills of Gaiety," a preparation based on hemp and sugar. In more recent times, especially in the sixteenth century, the reports of its use are more numerous. Garcia ab Horto for example found it very much in vogue in India as a euphoric and hypnotic. Prosper Alpini moreover gives us information about the action of the drug. He relates that on imbibing a preparation of the cheap powdered leaves, the people were intoxicated, and remained for a long time in a state of ecstasy, "accompanied by the visions they desired."

We have learnt quite recently how, thanks to these visions, the drug penetrated into certain regions and how in the thirteenth century and later the "Assassins" (Hashishins, herb-eaters) made use of it to gain novices who served as their docile instruments, fanatical and ready to undertake dangerous political coups and even murder. Through hashish, i.e. by means of hemp, they provoked artificial enthusiasm, ecstasy, inebriety of the senses and at the same time satisfaction of sensual desires. Abbot Arnold of Lübeck wrote in the twelfth century: "Hemp raises them to a state of ecstasy or folly, or intoxicates them. Then sorcerers draw near and exhibit to the sleepers phantasms, pleasures and amusements. They then promise that these delights will become perpetual if the orders given them are executed with the daggers provided."⁴

Those who were influenced in this way committed many evil deeds.⁵ These illusions have captured and still in our own days capture men who desire to pass from the misery of actual existence to pleasurable delights within. And how immense are the lands this drug has conquered!

The Extension of Cannabinism in Africa

In Egypt the inhabitants at the present time continue to smoke hashish or to make use of certain preparations adapted to their particular taste. To a great extent this is also the case in North Africa, from Tripoli to Morocco. The drug is used in Tunis, and in the district of Rirha to the east of Biskra the Arabs consume large quantities. They prefer hashish to opium, the action of the former being more rapid and the inebriety of a different kind. The passion for hemp increases towards the east. The whole of Algeria, especially Kabylia, is to-day full of hashish-smokers in spite of the efforts with the French have been making for many years to suppress the evil.

The Moroccans, as a rule, never take alcoholic beverages, but they like kif. Preparations from hemp are also called in thos parts Shira and Fasuch. The Arabic name Benj is also used. According to the preparations in my possession Shira consists of light brownish, very agreeably smelling, easily pulverized lumps very powerful in their action. The habit of smoking hashish is very popular among the poorer classes. Among the greater part of them, especially among the camel and donkey driver, the necessity for a bout of inebriety from kif appears every few days. The more refined inhabitants of the towns and the people of the country living close to nature rejected the smoking of hemp up to the end of the last century. In out of the way quarters of many towns small shops can be found where kif smokers indulge in their vice. Years ago there were no less than twenty-seven hashish-smoking dens in Wasan where kif was openly supplied to the customers.

The inhabitants of the Rif and the rest of the Atlas, however, constitute the greater number of the consumers of Indian hemp. Old and young indulge therein from the coast of the Atlantic to the Sahara and Cyrenaica. Those who return from the groups of oases in Central Sahara report under strictest secrecy that the men of the Senussi order intoxicate themselves with hashish before preaching their penitential sermons or accomplishing ecstatic ceremonies, as is the custom among these people.⁶ The plant grows there at the highest altitudes in sunny and sheltered spots and is frequently cultivated together with tobacco. After the harvest it is dried and cut on boards reserved solely for this purpose. The finely cut hemp is smoked in very small pipes at the end of long and slender stems (sibsi). After a few whiffs the sibsi is emptied, refilled, and passed to the neighbor, who smokes, fills it again from his own supply, passes it on to his neighbor, and so on till the round is finished.

In Bornu the smoking of hemp is indulged in scarcely or not at all.

On the west coast of Africa the passion for the drug may exist in isolated parts, but is more apparent in the territories where the Congo Negroes live, for instance in Liberia on the banks of the Messurado River, in the grass prairies of Oldfield, on the banks of the Junk River, near Fisherman Lake and Grand Bassa. They smoke the fresh or dried leaves in pipes in which a piece of glowing charcoal is placed. The cultivated hemp plant is called "Diamba." The pipe consists of a calabash, the open stem of which serves as a mouth-piece, the bowl of clam being fixed to a hole in the side of the gourd.

On the banks of the lower Ogowe the Ininga smoke hemp, whereas their neighbors the Fan are not addicted to the vice.

Along the coast of Loango hemp is smoked in water-pipes. The leaves and seeds are used, and are according to samples in my possession sold in long thick rolls similar to sausages wrapped in tow. In Angola the different tribes do not smoke hemp in the same manner. Whereas, for instance, the Ngangela smoke but rarely and clandestinely, the Tjivokve have a passionate love for the narghile filled with hemp. Farther south there is a region where the smoking of hemp has become a popular custom. This can be asserted of the Bergdamara in Nama- and Damaraland, of the Ovambo, and to a greater degree of the Hottentots, Bushmen, and Kaffirs. The happiness of Kaffir consists in lying on his back the whole day long and occasionally taking a whiff of hashish, the dacha. The Zulu Kaffirs place a handful of the dacha on the ground and some burning manure on top, cover both with earth and dig air-holes on both sides with their fingers into the little heap. Then they lie down one after another and each takes a few whiffs, retaining the smoke in the respiratory organs, a practice which is always succeeded by a violent attack of coughing and expectoration. Instead of these earth pipes, kudu or other horns and calabashes are employed as narghiles. The Bushmen consume the drug in ordinary tobacco pipes. The Heigum, i.e. those who sleep in the bush, smoke hemp they themselves cultivate, which is also called Heigum (haium). It brings sleep to those in the bush. The Auin men and women also avidly smoke hemp cultivated by Kaffirs in Oas and Bechuanas in Chansefeld, as well as by white farmers, from whom they procure it by way of exchange. Occasionally they cultivate it themselves in primitive fashion. In the south of central Africa, for instance in Manbunda, Matabele, and Rhodesia in the Zambesi region, hashish is smoked extensively. The Makololo and the Batoko call hemp or the smoking of hemp muto kwane. Its use extends further to Mozambique - in Quelimane hemp is called ssrúma or dumo - and is especially common in the territory of the Congo.

In these parts certain relations appear between the custom of smoking hemp and religious conceptions or national and ritual organizations. It would seem that sects of some kind are founded on its use. There may be found in diverse forms, in particular among the Kassai tribes, a cult of "Riamba." The Baluba, for instance, meet at night for a religious ceremony in order to smoke hemp. The hemp-smokers have formed a sect among some of the Baluba, neighbors of the Bachilange on the banks of the river Lulua. They call themselves "friends." Large parts of the land round their villages are sown with hemp which is hardly sufficient for their wants. The cultivation is carried out on a kind of communistic basis. The cult of Riamba practised by the Baluba was compulsorily introduced by the chief Kalamba-Mukenge. He sought to create a new religion. The ancient fetishes were destroyed and in their place hemp was introduced as a magic and universal means of protection against all injury to life and as a symbol of peace and friendship. The partisans of Kalamba therefore call themselves Bena-Riamba and greet each other with the word Moio (life). They are forbidden to consume palm-wine, but it is their duty to smoke hemp. According to Wissman's description all festivals are celebrated with Riamba banquets, and when smoking the Riamba (a huge calabash more than a yard in diameter, from which everyone takes three or four whiffs) pacts of friends are made and business transactions concluded. The man who commits a misdeed is condemned to smoke a certain number of pipes of hemp under supervision until he loses consciousness. The pipe accompanies the men on voyages and in war. Every evening the people meet in the Kiota or principal square of the village to smoke hemp. The silence of the night is generally interrupted by spastic cough attacks of zealous riamba-smokers. In Luluaburg also hemp-smoking plays an important part, but not to the same extent as in the region of Kalamba.

Hemp-smoking is also greatly in vogue in East Africa, with the exception of the territory between the lakes. It commences to the east of Lake Tanganyika. The Wanyamwesi cultivate the plant everywhere. They smoke the hemp which they themselves produce in narghiles of calabashes, and also snuff hashish. They call the plant "njemu." On the coast of Khutu and Usegua, for instance, it is abundantly cultivated. The consumption of hemp is very considerable in the districts around Lake Victoria, for instance Usukuma, Ututwa, Uganda, Kavirondo, Karagwe, Ukerewe. The Wassinyanga, the Washashi and Néra people cultivate the drug and smoke it to excess, whereas it has penetrated only to a slight extent into some East African territories, for instance the Tanga coast. It is frequently to be met with among the Nyam and in Kordofan, where, although prohibited, it is sold in the marketplaces. In Madagascar hemp is called "vongony."

The Use of Hemp in Asia Minor and Asia

The cultivation of hemp formerly flourished greatly in Turkey, but was prohibited towards the end of the last century, though this did not prevent its clandestine use. A preparation is in use called Esrar, i.e. the secret, which is smoked together with tobacco. Hemp in other forms is also chewed. In Syria hemp is cultivated and the resin carefully collected. In Damascus there are many dens where opium and hashish are smoked. Both substances are used in Persia. In this country Heshish is obtained by rubbing for hours on end the flowering tops and leaves of the plant on coarse woolen carpets, so that the resinous juice, which is too thick to penetrate into the carpet, is deposited on the surface. It is scraped off with the aid of a knife and rolled into small balls or irregular oblong sticks of a dirty green colour. The carpets used for this purpose are then washed with a small amount of water which is afterwards evaporated in the sun in porcelain plates. In this way an inferior product is obtained. So far back as the beginning of the last century Mehemet Khan punished those who used hemp beverages with death.

The Uzbeks and Tartars are addicted to hemp. The natives of Turkestan prepare hashish for their own use. In the time of the native Khans the sale of hemp was severely punished, but naturally without avail. In Shiva many persons, including the Dervishes, are addicted to the vice, which extends to Afghanistan and Baluchistan. In the Pamirs, amid the ice and snow, Bonvalot met Afghans who were on their way from Kashgar to Kabul over the Badakshan bringing cotton fabrics and hashish.

In some provinces of India, those of the north-west for instance, the cultivation of hemp, and in particular the manufacture of ganja for smoking, is prohibited by law. As a substitute bhang is produced, from which a hashish beverage is prepared. Considerable amounts of hemp preparations are consumed in Hindustan. In Kashmir large quantities of cannabis grow on the banks of the Jhelum and the Vishan, a strip five yards wide being reserved for the cultivation of the plant on each side, and the righ of gathering it let out on lease. The leaves are not smoked, but an intoxicating product, Majun, is prepared from them.⁷ The inhabitants of Bhutan high up in the Himalyas are passionately addicted to hemp-smoking. Charras is a very important object of commerce in the markets of Khatmandu in Nepal. In Bengal also there are many hemp-smokers. In certain parts merchants allow would-be smokers to take a few whiffs from a large pipe (Hukka) on payment of a fixed charge. The habit is to be met with throughout Eastern Asia, as well as in the north up to the oasis of Shami, where the Chinese Mohammedan tribe of the Taranche are addicted to it, and in the south in Burma and Siam, etc. It is always present, though not always in the same degree, for in some places, although it exists, it is little developed.

The Indian Yogis and their miracles may also be mentioned here. Among other things they have visions, and are capable of passing into trances and cataleptic states. The Yogi Haridas is said to have remained for forty days in a state resembling death, and even to have been buried. We must suppose that in order to obtain this result some kind of narcotic was taken, for instance hemp in the form of Bhang or Ganja; the latter is recommended for this purpose in Sanscrit texts. I think it likely, however, that this action is due to the application of datura or hyoscyamus, whose active principle, scopolamin, is frequently employed in medicine to produce somnolence; and this is confirmed from other sources.

The Effects of Indian Hemp

The course and character of the acute effects of hemp depend upon the nature and quantity of the preparation applied, and the individual disposition of the consumer, i.e. his physical and mental state, and so on. According to the general opinion hemp is smoked principally in order to increase the sexual functions or to experience voluptuous sensations in the trance state. This may be true, but it is not possible to quote precise facts as to the positive results obtained in this respect. It is possible that in the beginning some erotic visions intermingle with the dreams of the short and imaginary life into which the smoker of hashish is transported. These visions doubtless make this state desirable. Perhaps sexual potency is increased at the outset, but it nevertheless diminishes during the subsequent addiction to the drug, as in the case of opium-smoking.

After the first impressions of anxiety and restlessness hemp produces in most cases a feeling of happiness, the result of a sense of physical well-being and internal content. This state may manifest itself as an exhbition of gaiety in which the smokers behave in a very childish and stupid manner. At the same time peculiar convulsive laughter may be observed, the consequence no doubt of hallucination or bizarre illusion. After this attack of laughter one or other of the smokers starts weeping, giving his passion as the reason. Faintness may mark the beginning of this latter state.

There are other occasional consumers of hashish whose mental life is said to take the form of a wonderful dream, all the nuances of which are determined by the individual's environment and intellectual standard. In the most favourable case his impression is that all the thoughts which pass through his brain are lightened by the sun and that every one of his movements is a source of joy. Such men are not happy in the same way as the epicure or the starving man who satisfies his hunger, or the voluptuary who gratifies his desires, but like one who hears good news, a miser counting his treasures, a gambler favored with luck, an ambitious man intoxicated with success.^* At the same time a certain state of confusion may be present in which all kinds of far-away thoughts, of which he seeks an explanation in vain, attack the individual. Confuses schemes which hitherto seemed unrealizable become simple before his very eyes and approach realization. The bonds of time and space are broken.

Hallucinations, especially of sight, hearing, and general sensibility, frequently accompany the effects described. The last-named are usually of a disagreeable character. The senses become finer and more subtle. For instance, the impression made by noises is quite out of proportion to the real sounds emitted. If a person in this state talks or laughs his ear is affected as if by the thunder of cannon; a murmur gives the impression of a waterfall. Fireworks, rockets, and many-coloured stars seem to fly from the head. This state may be temporarily interrupted by the appearance of disagreeable sensations. Mortal fear makes the individual shiver and at the same time he is attacked by violent electric shocks. He feels as if he were put in irons or his brain devoured by fire. Occasionally, however, harmonious enchanting music is heard. A delicious joy and a feeling of intense well-being reappear. The illusion of being raised into the air may occur, and the subject seems to be clinging to a tree or experiencing the terrible sensation of expecting from moment to moment a fall into the abyss. This latter impression of danger has sometimes also been produced by some of the medicinally applied hemp preparations. The effects of the toxin may last several hours. Alterations of taste have also been observed, generally after the termination of the principal effects. Dishes served in a restaurant to a person under the final influences of the drug were of an unheard of savouriness. A deep sleep concludes the whole process.

There are also other varieties of the acute stage of intoxication. Some African hemp-smokers, for example, after a few whiffs become quite incapable of responsibility. Naturally it is quite impossible to obtain any enlightenment as to their internal sensations. Other hemp-smokers, after smoking a great deal, remain sitting with a fixed stare and a hanging under-lip, and a continuous nervous shivering shakes their bodies. Livingstone relates of the hemp-smokers of the Zambesi that after the first violent attack of coughing has passed and the excessive salivation is in progress a torrent of senseless words or phrases is uttered, such as "The green grass grows," or "The cattle are in the pasture." Nobody pays any attention to this flood of eloquence. Other smokers pass into a state of inebriety and ecstasy, leap and bound about until faintness and exhaustion throw them down. Europeans who smoke hemp frequently exhibit an abnormal desire for movement. They run about the room and a host of wild nonsensical ideas is let loose in them, which are impulsively expressed often with the accompaniment of bursts of laughter. Under the influence of an impulse of this kind a person who had taken hemp was compelled to crawl on his hands and feet. Although he was quite conscious of his actions he had no desire to do anything else. Finally there are individuals who after imbibing large quantities of hemp preparations manifest no nervous excitation, but a profound torpor or even a state of coma. Riff pirates smoking kif may be seen squatting apathetically in a corner meditating in silence, indifferent to the outer world. Some burst occasionally into shrill laughter, while others only grin placidly to themselves. One imagines himself the son-in-law of the chief, another thinks himself at sea and makes desperate swimming movements in order not to sink with his plank-bed. A third commands a troop of imaginary slaves to perform senseless and impossible deeds, and a fourth explains to everyone who will listen that he is really a great magician and tomorrow is going to hurl into the sea the rock-bound castles of the Spaniards.

The habitual smoking of Indian hemp, chronic cannabinism, after a certain time modifies the faculties. It changes the character in a humanly and socially unpleasant direction. Moroccans who were in the service of Europeans proved serviceable and reliable until they smoked kif. In users of Indian hemp the same craving for the drug appears under the same conditions as for opium and cocaine. Hemp-smokers indulge their passion daily or every three to five days. Ebn Beithar at the end of the twelfth century declares that hashish inebriates in doses of 4 to 8 gr., that larger doses give rise to delirium and insanity, whereas habitual consumption produces mental weakness or raving madness. This is the case. In such persons the intellectual faculties are weakened, and, according to the old Arab's saying, bad habits and spiritual debasement are produced so that they sink below the level of mankind. The whole populations of villages round the basin of the Kassai are morally and physically ruined by hemp, and it is reported of the Wanyamwesi that a great part of them have become half imbecile though its abuse.

For some time information has been forthcoming from the lunatic asylums in India and Egypt as to the frequency and modifications of mental diseases due to hemp. The important role which it plays in Bengal in the appearance of these disorders is indicated by the fact that of 232 cases of mental diseases 76 were caused by hemp. Of these latter only 34 were cured. It is said that generally speaking the sudden and rapid cure of such diseases is the only diagnostic sign of insanity due to hemp. In my experience this is only valid for a small percentage of very slight cases. In the lunatic asylum in Cairo, out of 248 inmates, 60 men and 4 or 5 women owed their mental state to hashish. These patients, like the occasional eaters and smokers of the drug, may be divided into several groups.

The first group exhibits a state of general euphory and excitation with visual hallucinations and illusions sometimes extending to deliria which are less violent, less aggressive, and more easily to be influenced than alcoholic delirium. The symptoms of ataxia are not present. A cure may be accomplished in one day. Individuals in a state of excitation may be considered as irresponsible.

The second group is characterized by a state of acute mania. The sense-illusions are terrible and are succeeded by maniacal delusions of persecution, sometimes also by a state of violent fury. The patient is agitated, garrulous, a prey to morbid illusions, and suffers from insomnia. Such cases last several months and are not always curable.

The third and very numerous group comprises mentally weakened persons who pass into a maniacal state after every excess of hashish. During their stay in the hospital they appear calm. Their talkativeness alone discloses their mental state. They are easily satisfied, lazy, without energy, indifferent to the future, without interest for their relatives. Their only desire is to be well fed and to get tobacco. The slightest provocation, however, evokes a state of violent excitation. After dismissal from the hospital they soon fall once more into the state of mania. They are extremely agitated, insult their friends, swear and easily become violent. They deny that they use hashish, immediately after they have praised its wonderful properties. This state of mania is in many cases chronic and ends in incurable dementia. These individuals seldom commit crimes.

Besides bronchitis and dysentery caused by the irritants contained in the hashish-smoke, this passion gives rise to general physical deterioration. The smokers of hashish may be recognized from a distance by their pale faces, hollow cheeks, and insecure gait. The offspring of inveterate hemp-smokers are liable to be of inferior quality if conception took place during inebriety. Among the Riff pirates scrofulous children are known as "Uld l'Kif," i.e. son of kif. What can be considered as true of alcohol in this respect is also valid for hemp, a substance of quite a different kind. The spermatozoa are subjected to the injurious effects of the active principles of hashish and are in this state conveyed to the ovule. It seems to me probable that the craving for hemp can be inherited.

If, as in India, hemp is consumed with the addition of stramonium datura, then the resulting maniacal state and dementia are greatly facilitated.

Everything I have stated about cannabinism tends to prove that the substance in question is a Phantasticum of a kind which, besides giving rise to sensorial illusions that are not always agreeable and to individually occurring feelings of intense well-being, is apt to develop extremely brutal effects leading to mental diseases. This impression of well-being is seated in the soul and cannot therefore be localized in the brain. Attention must be drawn to the differences between these mental diseases and those produced by cocaine. In both cases the active agent is a chemical substance. The process of reaction is just as obscure as with other substances of a similar nature. Is the action in question an irritation? If this be assumed we must endeavor to find the reason for the difference in the qualities of the irritation which evoke such extremes in functional alterations of the activity of the brain. Even if this were known another problem arises. Why is the repeated action of these two substances so different and why does it extend to different parts of the brain? If in all these problems a chemical action or an action founded on chemical affinity were assumed, as I have already stated, we would gain more insight into the causality of the action of these substances. Certain components of hemp must be regarded as having a specific relationship to certain points of the brain which results in local modifications having the consequences described. These apparent effects are quite dissimilar for instance to those of anhalonium lewinii which calls forth utterly different, and we might almost say nobler, alterations of the functions or the state of certain groups of ganglia.

The abuse of hashish cannot be prevented in spite of severe regulations. Although in the French part of Africa the smoking of hashish is prohibited, and although it is also mentioned in the new law relating to the restriction of the traffic in opium, cocaine, etc., it is smoked in spite of the difficulty of obtaining the drug. If its use is prohibited in public places, the passion is nevertheless indulged clandestinely. Public scandal is avoided, but the craving itself is all the more protected because it is hardly or not at all to be observed. If the cultivation of Indian hemp organized in Germany in 1917 for medicinal purposes should furnish hashish suitable for ordinary consumption, a new source of toxicomania would be established.

Footnotes

1. Majun is a saccharine preparation containing hemp to which opium, the seeds of datura, and other substances are said to be added.
2. B. Meissner in Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, vol. v, p. 117. I am indebted to Dr. John Loewenthal for this information.
3. L. Lewin, Lehrbuch der Toxicologie, 2nd ed., p. 379.
4. Artbauer, Rifpiraten, 1911.
5. According to Hügel, not only the common people but also the Brahmins smoke the dried blossoms.
6. L. Lewin, Die Gifte in der Weltgeschichte, 1920, p. 4.
7. Ibid.

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